From The Way to the Ebionites: Paul and the Eclipse of the Earliest Torah-Faithful Christianity
Abstract
Before Saul of Tarsus became the Apostle Paul, he persecuted a sect known as The Way—a Torah-observant community of Jewish followers of Jesus who viewed him as the promised Messiah rather than a divine law-abolisher. Following his reported revelation on the road to Damascus, Paul recast the gospel in a law-free, universalist frame. This transformation not only redefined Christian identity but also alienated the original disciples in Jerusalem. Tracing the movement from The Way through the Nazarenes and Ebionites, this article reconstructs the historical trajectory of early Jewish Christianity and its long resistance to Pauline theology.
I. The Way: The First Followers of Jesus
The earliest Jesus-movement, called The Way (hē hodos, Acts 9:2), emerged in Jerusalem during the mid-first century. Its members prayed at the Temple, observed the Mosaic law, and proclaimed Jesus (Yeshua) as the awaited Mashiach (Messiah) who fulfilled—rather than abolished—the Torah. Luke’s Acts portrays them as a sect within Judaism, not an external faith. James (Yaʿqūb), Peter (Kēfa), and John (Yōḥanan) were regarded as its pillars (Gal 2:9).
Paul, initially a Pharisee, viewed this group as a threat to Pharisaic orthodoxy and actively sought their imprisonment (Acts 9:1–2). His persecution of The Way thus targeted the most ancient stratum of Christ-faith—rooted in the covenantal traditions of Israel.
II. Paul’s Revelation and the Birth of a New Gospel
After his visionary experience near Damascus (Acts 9:3–6), Paul claimed to have received the gospel “not from man but by revelation of Jesus Christ” (Gal 1:11–12). He began to preach justification by faith apart from Torah observance, teaching that “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law” (Gal 3:13).
This message clashed with Jerusalem’s apostles, who continued to uphold the Torah. Paul described them dismissively as “those who seemed to be something” (Gal 2:6), insisting they “added nothing” to his teaching. In contrast, Acts records that the Jerusalem elders required him to show his loyalty to the law by performing purification rites (Acts 21:24).
Paul’s new gospel—focused on Gentile inclusion and faith without the law—marked a profound theological rupture. The same community he once persecuted for fidelity to the Torah, he now condemned as “false brothers” (Gal 2:4) and even declared anathema (Gal 1:8–9).
III. The Way versus Paul: A Doctrinal Comparison
| Theme | Paul (Galatians) | The Way / Jerusalem Apostles | Tension |
|---|---|---|---|
| Authority | “Not from man, but through revelation.” (Gal 1:12) | Apostolic chain from Jesus through James, Peter, and John (Acts 2:42) | Personal revelation vs. institutional continuity |
| Law | “We are not under the law.” (Gal 5:18) | “All are zealous for the law.” (Acts 21:20) | Antinomianism vs. covenant fidelity |
| Circumcision | “If you are circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing.” (Gal 5:2) | Continued observance for Jews (Acts 21:24) | Abrogation vs. maintenance of covenantal sign |
| Justification | “By faith, not works.” (Gal 2:16) | “Faith without works is dead.” (Jas 2:26) | Soteriological opposition |
| Gospel | “If anyone preaches another gospel, let him be accursed.” (Gal 1:8) | Gospel of repentance and obedience (Acts 3:19) | Polemical reversal |
IV. Post-Pauline Fragmentation: Nazarenes and Ebionites
After the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE, The Way fled across the Jordan to Pella (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. III.5). There they persisted as Nazarenes, Torah-faithful believers in Jesus who maintained circumcision, Sabbath observance, and kosher laws.
By the second century, internal diversity led to two branches:
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Nazarenes — moderate, accepting Jesus’ divine mission yet preserving Jewish law.
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Ebionites (Heb. ’ebhyônîm, “the poor”) — more radical, denying Jesus’ pre-existence and rejecting Pauline letters.
Irenaeus (c. 180 CE) records:
“They use the Gospel according to Matthew only, and repudiate the Apostle Paul, calling him an apostate from the Law.” (Adversus Haereses I.26.2)
Epiphanius (c. 375 CE) likewise states:
“They [the Nazoraeans] are Jews who revere Christ but keep the Law… They anathematize Paul, saying he was deceived.” (Panarion 29–30)
Both groups preserved a Semitic gospel (the Gospel of the Hebrews or Hebrew Matthew), continuing the theology of The Way long after Pauline Christianity became dominant.
V. Later Survival: Clementine and Arabian Traces
By the third and fourth centuries, anti-Pauline sentiment resurfaced in the Clementine Homilies and Recognitions, which depict a conflict between Peter and “Simon Magus” — a thinly veiled representation of Paul.
“Some have set themselves against me, preaching without understanding the Law.” (Hom. 17.19)
These writings circulated in Antioch and Caesarea, expressing the enduring opposition between law-keeping Petrine Christianity and law-free Pauline theology.
Epiphanius and Jerome report that remnants of these groups survived into late antiquity in Arabia Petraea and the Hijaz, forming a religious bridge between Judaism, early Christianity, and the monotheism that would later crystallize in Islam.
VI. Chronological Overview
| Century | Movement | Location | View of Paul | Law Observance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | The Way | Jerusalem | Persecuted by him | Full |
| 2nd | Nazarenes / Ebionites | Pella, Syria | Rejected him | Full |
| 3rd–4th | Clementine communities | Antioch, Caesarea | Allegorical opposition | Full |
| 4th+ | Remnant Nazarenes | Arabia Petraea | Still anti-Pauline | Full |
VII. Visualization
(Adapted from timeline chart above)
A linear flow traces the continuity:
Jerusalem (30–70) → Pella (70–135) → Transjordan & Syria (135–200) → Coele-Syria & Mesopotamia (200–325) → Arabia (325–400+).
This migration illustrates not extinction but evolution — the movement’s quiet persistence beyond the canonical narrative.
Conclusion
Paul’s reinterpretation of the gospel redefined Christianity’s identity from a covenantal Jewish sect into a universal faith detached from Torah. Yet beneath this transformation survived a counter-tradition — The Way, Nazarenes, and Ebionites — preserving the earliest understanding of Jesus as Israel’s Messiah within the bounds of Mosaic faith. Their eventual marginalization reveals not heresy but the historical cost of theological victory.
Bibliography (Chicago Style)
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Acts of the Apostles, New Testament.
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The Epistle of James, New Testament.
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Irenaeus. Adversus Haereses. I.26.2.
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Epiphanius of Salamis. Panarion 29–30.
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Eusebius of Caesarea. Ecclesiastical History III.5, III.27.
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Clementine Homilies 17–19; Recognitions 1–3.
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Milavec, Aaron. The Didache: Faith, Hope, and Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50–70 C.E. New York: Newman Press, 2003.
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Schneemelcher, Wilhelm, ed. New Testament Apocrypha, vol. 1. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1991.
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Baur, F. C. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ. London: Williams & Norgate, 1845.
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Schoeps, Hans-Joachim. Theologie und Geschichte des Judenchristentums. Tübingen: Mohr, 1949.
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Bauckham, Richard. Jude and the Relatives of Jesus in the Early Church. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1990.
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Eisenman, Robert. James the Brother of Jesus. New York: Penguin, 1997.
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Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
🔹 Table: Paul vs. The Way
| Theme | Paul (esp. Galatians) | The Way — Earliest Disciples | Core Conflict |
|---|---|---|---|
| Authority Source | “The gospel I preach is not from man… but by revelation from Jesus Christ.” (Gal 1 : 11–12) | “They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching.” (Acts 2 : 42) — James, Peter, John seen as pillars (Gal 2 : 9 acknowledges them) | Paul bypasses the apostolic chain of authority, claiming a private revelation. |
| Law / Torah | “We are not under the law.” (Gal 5 : 18) — “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law.” (Gal 3 : 13) | “You see, brother, how many thousands of Jews have believed, and all are zealous for the law.” (Acts 21 : 20) | Paul treats Torah observance as bondage; The Way saw it as covenant fidelity. |
| Circumcision | “If you let yourselves be circumcised, Christ will be of no value to you.” (Gal 5 : 2) | “Paul himself should walk orderly and keep the law… showing he observes the customs.” (Acts 21 : 24) | Paul calls circumcision spiritually worthless; James’ group maintains it for Jews. |
| Justification | “A person is not justified by works of the law, but by faith in Jesus Christ.” (Gal 2 : 16) | James: “A person is justified by works and not by faith alone.” (Jas 2 : 24) | Direct doctrinal clash: faith vs faith + obedience. |
| Gospel definition | “If anyone preaches another gospel… let him be accursed.” (Gal 1 : 8–9) | The apostles preach repentance, obedience, and Messiah’s kingdom (Acts 2 : 38; 3 : 19) | Paul anathematizes those continuing the older, Torah-based gospel. |
| Identity of believers | “There is neither Jew nor Greek… you are all one in Christ.” (Gal 3 : 28) | The Way keeps Israel’s identity markers while welcoming Gentiles (Acts 15 : 19–21) | Paul erases ethnic distinction; The Way keeps covenantal order. |
| View of Apostles at Jerusalem | “Those who seemed to be something … added nothing to me.” (Gal 2 : 6) | Jerusalem elders send Paul with written decrees (Acts 15 : 23–29) | Paul minimizes their authority; Acts shows him still under it. |
| Cursing opponents | “I wish those agitators would emasculate themselves!” (Gal 5 : 12) | “Bless those who persecute you.” (Rom 12 : 14 echoes Jesus’ teaching — contrast tone) | Irony: Paul adopts harsh polemic toward the saints he once persecuted. |
The Jerusalem faction later produced or used texts such as the Didache, Gospel of the Hebrews, and Ebionite traditions, all defending fidelity to both Jesus and the Torah. Church Fathers like Irenaeus and Epiphanius later labeled them “Ebionites” or “Nazarenes,” precisely because they rejected Paul’s gospel as a corruption of “The Way.”
here is a chain of textual and patristic evidence tracing how early Jewish-Christian groups (The Way, later called Nazarenes and Ebionites) preserved anti-Pauline traditions and Torah fidelity, presented in concise Chicago-style format for scholarly use
🔹 Primary Manuscript & Patristic Chain of Evidence
1. The Acts of the Apostles (1st c.)
Earliest canonical witness to “The Way” (Greek: hē hodos).
“Saul still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord … asked for letters … so that if he found any belonging to The Way, he might bring them bound to Jerusalem.”
— Acts 9:1–2
➡ Establishes that the first followers of Jesus were Torah-observant Jews within Temple life, not a separate “church.”
2. The Epistle of James (mid-1st c.)
Written by Yaʿqūb (James the Just), leader of the Jerusalem assembly.
“Faith without works is dead.” — James 2:26
➡ Directly contradicts Paul’s claim that faith alone justifies (Gal 2:16), showing internal doctrinal conflict inside the 1st-century movement.
3. The Didache – Διδαχή (c. 70–120 CE)
Earliest non-Pauline manual of community conduct.
“If you are able to bear the whole yoke of the Lord, you will be perfect; but if you are not able, do what you can.” — Didache 6:2
➡ “Yoke” here means Torah; the community remained halakhically observant.
See: Aaron Milavec, The Didache: Faith, Hope, and Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50–70 C.E. (Newman Press, 2003).
4. Gospel of the Hebrews (early 2nd c.)
Used by Nazarenes and quoted by Church Fathers.
“When Christ wished to give the water of life, James the Just swore he would not eat until he had seen the Lord risen.” — Jerome, De viris illustribus 2
➡ Reflects a distinctly Jerusalemite lineage independent of Paul.
See: Wilhelm Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha, vol. 1 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1991), pp. 134–143.
5. Irenaeus of Lyons – Adversus Haereses I.26.2 (c. 180 CE)
“They [the Ebionites] use the Gospel according to Matthew only, and repudiate the Apostle Paul, calling him an apostate from the law.”
➡ First explicit patristic testimony that early Jewish-Christians rejected Paul outright.
6. Epiphanius of Salamis – Panarion 29–30 (c. 375 CE)
“They [the Nazoraeans] are Jews who revere Christ but keep the Law … They anathematize Paul, saying he was deceived.”
➡ Provides detail that they kept Sabbath, circumcision, and kosher observance — yet revered Jesus as prophet and Messiah.
7. Eusebius of Caesarea – Ecclesiastical History III.27 (early 4th c.)
“They [Ebionites] thought him [Paul] an apostate from the law, while they themselves were zealous to keep the Jewish customs.”
➡ Confirms continuity of this group into the 4th century, still maintaining anti-Pauline identity.
8. Clementine Homilies & Recognitions (3rd–4th c.)
Pseudo-Clementine literature preserves internal polemic between Peter and a figure named Simon Magus, whose doctrines closely mirror Paul’s theology.
“Some have set themselves against me, preaching without understanding the law.” — Homilies 17.19
➡ Scholars like F. C. Baur and Bart Ehrman identify Simon Magus here as a veiled representation of Paul.
See: F. C. Baur, Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ (1845); Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities (Oxford, 2003), pp. 99–106.
🔹 Summary of Historical Lineage
| Century | Community / Source | View of Paul | Torah Practice |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | The Way (Acts, James) | Not yet present / persecuted by him | Full observance |
| 1st–2nd | Didache, Gospel of Hebrews | Ignored / non-Pauline | Full |
| 2nd | Ebionites (Irenaeus) | Apostate from Law | Full |
| 3rd–4th | Nazarenes (Epiphanius, Eusebius) | Deceived / rejected | Full |
| 4th | Clementine Homilies | Allegorically opposed (Simon = Paul) | Full |
🔹 Scholarly Chain of Interpretation
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F. C. Baur, Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ (1845).
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Hans-Joachim Schoeps, Theologie und Geschichte des Judenchristentums (Tübingen, 1949).
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Richard Bauckham, Jude and the Relatives of Jesus in the Early Church (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1990).
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Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities (Oxford University Press, 2003).
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Robert Eisenman, James the Brother of Jesus (Penguin, 1997).
🕎 Chronological Evolution of Early Jewish-Christian Movements
| Century (CE) | Movement / Name | Key Locations | Core Beliefs | Relation to Paul | Main Sources / Witnesses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 30–70 | The Way (הדרך / ὁδός) | Jerusalem, Damascus, Galilee | Torah-observant; Temple worship; belief that Jesus is Messiah but not abolisher of Law. | Paul persecutes them (Acts 9:1–2). Later condemns their Law-keeping as “another gospel” (Gal 1:8). | Acts 9, 21; James; Didache 6 |
| 70–135 | Jerusalem Nazarenes | Pella (Transjordan), Damascus | Survive after 70 CE destruction; flee across Jordan; maintain Sabbath, circumcision, prayer toward Jerusalem. | Regard Paul as innovator; reject his gospel to Gentiles. | Eusebius, EH III.5; Epiphanius, Pan. 29–30 |
| 135–200 | Ebionites (אֶבְיוֹנִים, “the Poor”) | Transjordan, Syria, Northern Arabia | Use Hebrew Gospel of Matthew; vegetarian; deny pre-existence of Jesus; strict monotheism. | Explicitly call Paul “apostate from the Law.” | Irenaeus AH 1.26; Epiphanius Pan. 30; Origen, Cels. 5.61 |
| 200–325 | Nazarenes (2nd-gen.) | Coele-Syria, Beroea (Aleppo), Mesopotamia | Continue full Torah observance; affirm virgin birth; use Gospel of the Hebrews. | Respect Jesus and apostles but reject Paul’s antinomianism. | Jerome, De viris ill. 3; Epiphanius Pan. 29 |
| 325–400+ | Clementine / Pseudo-Clementine Communities | Antioch, Caesarea, East Mediterranean | Torah-faithful followers of Peter; view “Simon Magus” (Paul) as deceiver teaching lawless grace. | Allegorical polemic: Peter vs Paul. | Clementine Homilies 17–19; Recognitions 1–3 |
| Post-400 | Remnant Nazarenes | Arabia Petraea, Hijaz fringes (per Epiphanius, Jerome) | Blend of Jewish monotheism + Jesus as prophet; possibly survived into early Islam. | Still anti-Pauline; recognized only Torah & Hebrew Matthew. | Epiphanius, Jerome, Eusebius |
🗺️ Geographic Flow
After the 70 CE destruction of the Temple, The Way fled to Pella, fulfilling early warnings (Eusebius, EH III.5).
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By the 2nd century, they fragmented into Nazarenes (who still accepted Jesus’ divinity in some form) and Ebionites (who did not).
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Both groups rejected Paul’s writings and held to Hebrew Matthew or Gospel of the Hebrews as their scripture.
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By the 4th century, Church Fathers report them living in Transjordan, Syria, and Arabia, forming a cultural bridge between Judaism, early Christianity, and pre-Islamic monotheism.
🔹 Chain of Scholarly Corroboration (Chicago-style)
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Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses I.26.2, c. 180 CE.
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Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History III.5, III.27, early 4th c.
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Epiphanius, Panarion 29–30, 375 CE.
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Jerome, De viris illustribus 2–3.
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Clementine Homilies 17–19 (ed. Rehm, 1969).
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Hans-Joachim Schoeps, Theologie und Geschichte des Judenchristentums (Tübingen: Mohr, 1949).
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Robert Eisenman, James the Brother of Jesus (New York: Penguin, 1997).
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Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities (Oxford: OUP, 2003).
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