The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Threefold Messianic Expectation: Unveiling Their Fulfillment in John, Jesus, and Muhammad

I. Introduction

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) in Qumran revolutionized our understanding of Jewish messianic expectations during the late Second Temple period. Among their most intriguing teachings is the anticipation of three distinct eschatological figures—a Prophet like Moses, a Messiah son of Aaron (priestly), and a Messiah son of David/Israel (kingly).
While later Christian theology merged these functions into one person, the DSS community envisioned them as separate but cooperative agents of divine restoration.

This study examines how these three roles can be historically and functionally mapped to John the Baptist (Yaḥyā), Jesus (ʿĪsā), and Muhammad ﷺ, drawing on the DSS texts themselves, the Bible, and the Qur’an. It also highlights how the final role — the Prophet like Moses — finds its most complete realization in Muhammad, as affirmed by both historical scholarship and interreligious comparisons.

II. The Messianic Framework of the DSS

The Qumran community, often identified with the Essenes, viewed themselves as a covenantal remnant awaiting the end-time redemption. Their writings (notably 1QS, 1QSa, and CD) refer to:

The Prophet — “until the coming of the Prophet and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel” (1QSa II.11–22).
The Messiah of Aaron (Priestly) — “the priest, the Messiah of Aaron, shall preside first… stretching out his hand to bless the first portion of bread and wine.”
The Messiah of Israel (Kingly) — who follows the priestly figure in blessing and leadership.

Thus, the DSS reveal a structured hierarchy:
the Priestly Messiah precedes, the Kingly Messiah rules, and the Prophet inaugurates divine law. This triadic framework mirrors the offices of Prophet, Priest, and King found throughout the Tanakh but elevated into an apocalyptic context.

III. The Messiah Son of Aaron: The Priestly Forerunner

The Messiah ben Aaron, as envisioned by Qumran, is a spiritual reformer — one who purifies the people and prepares them for the kingdom’s arrival.
This perfectly aligns with John the Baptist (Yaḥyā), who:

Descended from Aaron’s priestly lineage (Luke 1:5).
Preached repentance and purification through baptism.
Came immediately before Jesus, fulfilling the role of forerunner.

John’s denial of being “Elijah” (John 1:21) further clarifies a misunderstanding among his contemporaries, who conflated Elijah’s expected return with the priestly messiah’s preparatory function. In Islam, too, Yaḥyā is recognized as a prophet of purity and moral reform (Q 19:12–15). Thus, John stands as the archetypal Priestly Messiah, heralding the next stage in divine history.

IV. The Messiah Son of David: The Kingly Figure

The Messiah ben David represents political and eschatological kingship.
In Qumran theology, this figure restores Israel’s sovereignty and manifests divine justice on earth.

Historically, Jesus (ʿĪsā) was regarded as the “Son of David” (Matthew 21:9), embodying the spiritual dimension of kingship — one of humility, compassion, and divine wisdom rather than temporal rule. The Qur’an acknowledges Jesus as a mighty messenger and sign (Q 43:59), yet clarifies he was not divine. His mission focused on moral kingship, preparing for a later restoration of divine order.

V. The Prophet Like Moses: The Lawgiver and Nation Builder

The Prophet like Moses (Deuteronomy 18:18) was expected to arise “from among the brethren” of Israel, i.e., from the descendants of Ishmael — Israel’s brother through Abraham. The DSS community awaited this figure as the inaugurator of a new covenantal order, bringing divine law and unity.

No historical figure fulfills these criteria more completely than Prophet Muhammad ﷺ:

Lawgiver – He brought the Qur’an and the Sharīʿah, a comprehensive divine code.
Nation Builder – Founded a new polity (Ummah) in Medina, uniting tribes under monotheism.
Eschatological Leader – Declared as the Seal of the Prophets (Q 33:40), culminating the Abrahamic line.
Among the Brethren – A descendant of Ishmael, the brother of Israel.
Historical Parallels with Moses – Both experienced persecution, led an exodus, founded a nation, and delivered divine law.

Scholarly Corroboration

As shown in the excerpt from Chapter 3: The Arabian Prophecies:

“The ‘Prophet like Moses’ is in fact Muhammad, who is the only person in history who satisfies all the criteria. As foretold in Deuteronomy 33, Prophet Muhammad came with ten thousand saints and brought a fiery law… He is a descendant of Ishmael, thus satisfying the criterion of being from among the brethren of the Israelites.”

Further corroboration is given by major scholars:

Rabbi Moshe Greenberg observed:

“No single figure in later Israel plays the many roles ascribed to Moses… The best analogue to Moses in the history of religions, Muhammad, exhibits the very same multiplicity of roles: oracle, political-military leader, cult founder, and lawgiver.”
Reverend James L. Dow (Collins Dictionary of the Bible) wrote:

“The only man in history who can be compared even remotely to him [Moses] is Mohammed.”

These independent assessments underline that Muhammad alone combines prophethood, statecraft, and legislation — precisely the triune mission anticipated in Qumran’s Prophet like Moses.

VI. Integrating the Three Figures

Role	DSS Title	Historical Fulfillment	Function
Priestly	Messiah son of Aaron	John the Baptist (Yaḥyā)	Purifier, prepares the community for divine rule
Kingly	Messiah son of David	Jesus (ʿĪsā)	Moral and spiritual ruler, herald of justice
Prophetic / Lawgiver	Prophet like Moses	Muhammad ﷺ	Bringer of law, founder of the divine nation

The DSS expected these three to appear in sequence, each building upon the other’s mission.
Christian theology later merged them into a single Christological figure, whereas Islam preserved their distinction:
John as the herald, Jesus as the messianic reformer, and Muhammad as the final lawbearing prophet who completed the Abrahamic covenant.

VII. Theological and Historical Continuity

The Qur’an explicitly affirms this prophetic sequence:

Q 73:15: “We have sent to you a Messenger as We sent to Pharaoh a Messenger.”
Q 28:48: “When the truth came to them, they said, ‘Why was he not given like that which was given to Moses?’… Indeed, we disbelieve in both.”

These verses echo the same Mosaic typology found in DSS expectation and Deuteronomy’s prophecy.
The continuity from Moses to Muhammad is not a coincidence but the unfolding of the same divine covenant known to the ancient Israelites, preserved by the Qumran community, and completed through Islam.

VIII. Conclusion

The Dead Sea Scrolls preserve a lost chapter of early Jewish eschatology — a vision of three messianic figures working in harmony: the Priest (Aaronic), the King (Davidic), and the Prophet (Mosaic).
By tracing their historical correspondences:

John the Baptist fulfills the Priestly role of purification,
Jesus fulfills the Kingly role of moral leadership and messianic reform,
Muhammad ﷺ fulfills the Prophetic role of Mosaic lawgiving and nation-building.

Thus, the “mystery of the DSS triad” is resolved when viewed through the continuous thread of revelation — from Torah to DSS to Qur’an.
Far from isolated sectarian hopes, these prophecies converge upon a single divine plan culminating in Muhammad ﷺ, whom scholars and scripture alike recognize as the true Prophet like Moses — the final link completing the Abrahamic continuum.

References (Chicago Style)

Greenberg, Moshe. The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960. Quoted in Chapter 3: The Arabian Prophecies: “No single figure in later Israel plays the many roles ascribed to Moses… The best analogue to Moses in the history of religions, Muhammad, exhibits the very same multiplicity of roles: oracle, political-military leader, cult founder and lawgiver.”
Dow, James L. Collins Dictionary of the Bible. London: Collins, 1971. Entry under “Moses”: “The only man in history who can be compared even remotely to him is Mohammed.”
Vermes, Geza. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English. London: Penguin Classics, 2012. (See 1QSa II.11–22 for “the Prophet and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel.”)
Wise, Michael O., Martin G. Abegg, and Edward Cook. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
Deuteronomy 18:18–19; 33:2. The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh).
The Qur’an. Translated by M. A. S. Abdel Haleem. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
– 73:15 (“We have sent to you a Messenger as We sent to Pharaoh a Messenger”)
– 28:48 (“Why was he not given like that which was given to Moses?”)
– 33:40 (“Seal of the Prophets”).
Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Translated by William Whiston. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930.
Charlesworth, James H. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994.
Collins, John J. The Scepter and the Star: Messianism in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.
Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah. New York: Doubleday, 1993. (For Jewish expectations of Elijah and the Messiah in the Second Temple period.)

IX. Clarifying “From Among Their Brethren” (Deuteronomy 18:18)

1. The Core of the Debate

Christian apologists often claim that “from among their brethren” in Deuteronomy 18:18 means “from among their fellow Israelites,” suggesting that the promised prophet must come from Israel itself. This interpretation is based primarily on modern English translations such as the NIV:

“I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their fellow Israelites.”

However, this phrasing is a translation choice, not a faithful rendering of the original Hebrew or Septuagint Greek. The original text of the Torah, as preserved in the Masoretic and Septuagint versions, gives a different picture.

2. The Original Hebrew Expression

The Hebrew phrase used in Deuteronomy 18:18 is:

מִקֶּרֶב אֲחֵיהֶם (mi-qerev aḥêhem) — “from among their brethren.”

Here, aḥ (אָח) means “brother,” and aḥêhem means “their brothers.”
Throughout the Torah, this term “brethren” (אַחִים) is used for closely related nations descended from the same patriarchs, not only Israelites.

Deuteronomy 23:7 —
“Thou shalt not abhor an Edomite; for he is thy brother (aḥîkha).”
→ Edomites (descendants of Esau) are called brethren of Israel.
Genesis 25:18 —
“And they [Ishmael’s descendants] dwelt from Havilah unto Shur… and he died in the presence of all his brethren.”
→ Ishmaelites are likewise referred to as brethren of Israel.
Genesis 16:11–12 —
“He shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren.”

Hence, in the Hebrew context, “brethren” includes the Ishmaelites, who are Abraham’s sons through Ishmael, just as the Israelites are Abraham’s sons through Isaac.

3. The Septuagint and Ancient Reading

The Septuagint (LXX), the earliest Greek translation of the Torah, preserves the same inclusive reading:

ἐκ τῶν ἀδελφῶν αὐτῶν — “from among their brothers.”

This phrase is directed to Israel as a single entity, implying that the prophet would come from the brothers of Israel, i.e., a related nation descended from Abraham, not merely from within Israel’s tribes.

Therefore, when God says to Moses, “I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brethren,” it means from a nation related to Israel — the Ishmaelites.

4. Why Modern Translations Differ

Modern versions such as NIV and NLT paraphrase the verse as “fellow Israelites,” often influenced by theological assumptions rather than the original semantics.
The older translations (KJV, ASV, JPS, Douay-Rheims) preserve the authentic phrase “from among their brethren.”
Textually, there is no manuscript evidence that the word “Israelites” existed in the Hebrew original — it was introduced later for doctrinal emphasis.

5. The Broader Context: Who Are Israel’s Brethren?

Scripture consistently describes Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Ishmael as Israel’s “brethren.”
The Torah’s genealogical logic defines “brethren” not by nationality, but by shared descent from Abraham.
Thus, when Deuteronomy 18:18 speaks of “their brethren,” it means the other sons of Abraham — specifically, the line of Ishmael.

Even early Jewish commentators such as Ibn Ezra and Rashi recognized this kinship usage, though later rabbinic tradition reinterpreted it narrowly within Israel.

6. The Prophet’s Characteristics

God tells Moses:

“I will put My words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him.” (Deut 18:18)

This aligns precisely with Muhammad ﷺ:

The Qur’an is recited verbatim — “He does not speak from his own desire; it is only revelation revealed.” (Q 53:3–4)
He came from the brethren of Israel (Ishmael’s descendants), not from Israel itself.
He brought a complete law, as Moses did.
He is the only historical prophet who fits all these elements simultaneously.

7. Common Christian Objections and Responses

Objection	Response
“The prophet must be an Israelite.”	The Hebrew word “brethren” (אַחִים) includes non-Israelite kin. The Torah calls Edomites and Ishmaelites “brothers.” The text does not say “from among you” (מִקִּרְבְּכֶם) but “from among your brethren.”
“But God spoke to Israel, so He means their own people.”	God often addresses Israel as one person (“Israel, you shall…”) but refers to related nations as “your brothers.” The Septuagint confirms this distinction.
“The context of Deuteronomy 18 refers to Israelite prophets.”	The immediate context lists false prophets within Israel, but verse 18 introduces a distinct, future prophet like Moses, not one among the Levitical line — otherwise the distinction “like unto thee” would lose meaning.
“Jesus fulfills this.”	Jesus was a reformer within Israel, not a lawgiver like Moses; he did not bring a new covenantal law, nor establish a nation. Muhammad uniquely fits the Mosaic typology as prophet, lawgiver, and ruler.

8. Conclusion of the Section

The Hebrew “mi-qerev aḥêhem” (“from among their brethren”) is a deliberate, inclusive term, referring to Israel’s Abrahamic kin — especially the Ishmaelites.
Muhammad ﷺ, as a descendant of Ishmael, lawgiver, and bearer of divine revelation, fulfills this prophecy exactly as the “Prophet like Moses.”
The textual evidence of the Hebrew Torah, the Septuagint, and the Qur’an together affirm this reading — a coherent line of revelation that transcends sectarian translation bias.

IX-B. Addressing Common Objections from Christian and Jewish Critics

1. “The Prophet Must Be an Israelite”

Critics often claim the phrase “from among their brethren” refers to Israelites themselves, not to Ishmaelites.
However, the Hebrew term “aḥ” (אָח) consistently denotes kinship through descent, not merely nationality.

Deuteronomy 23:7: “Thou shalt not abhor an Edomite, for he is thy brother.”
Genesis 25:18: “And [Ishmael’s descendants] dwelt… in the presence of all his brethren.”

Both Edomites (descendants of Esau) and Ishmaelites (descendants of Ishmael) are explicitly called brothers of Israel.
Thus, the phrase “their brethren” in Deuteronomy 18:18 cannot be restricted to Israelites.
Even the Septuagint Greek renders it as ἐκ τῶν ἀδελφῶν αὐτῶν (“from among their brothers”), which linguistically includes all Abrahamic relatives.

2. “The Context Refers Only to Prophets within Israel”

It is true that Deuteronomy 18 discusses false prophets within Israel.
Yet in verse 18, God explicitly tells Moses:

“I will raise up for them a Prophet like you…”

The comparison “like you” implies a prophet equal to Moses in lawgiving authority, not one of the ordinary Israelite prophets who merely reminded people of existing law.
If it referred only to Israelites, Moses would have said “from among you” (mi-qirbekhem) — as used elsewhere in Deuteronomy (13:1–3). Instead, the text reads “from among their brethren” (mi-qerev aḥêhem), showing deliberate distinction.

3. “Jesus Already Fulfilled This Prophecy”

Christian apologists often cite Acts 3:22–23, where Peter identifies Jesus as the Prophet like Moses.
However, when examined through the Mosaic criteria, Jesus does not fulfill the prophecy literally:

Criterion	Moses	Jesus
Lawgiver	Gave the Torah	Did not deliver new law; affirmed Mosaic law (Matthew 5:17)
Nation Builder	Led Israel as a political and religious nation	Never led or governed a nation
Military/Political Leader	Led campaigns, liberated Israel	Declared “My kingdom is not of this world”
Completed Mission	Established a long-lasting religious and legal system	Followers later altered his message, as even Christian historians admit

In contrast, Muhammad ﷺ satisfies each Mosaic criterion perfectly: he brought divine law (Sharīʿah), founded the Muslim Ummah, ruled as a head of state, and re-established monotheism among Abraham’s descendants.

4. “Prophecy Ended with the Old Testament” (Jewish Objection)

Some Jewish scholars maintain that prophecy ceased after Malachi.
However, this is contradicted by Qumran and rabbinic texts, which continued to expect a coming “Prophet like Moses.”
The Dead Sea Scrolls themselves speak of “the Prophet” alongside the two Messiahs (1QSa II.11–22).
Even Maimonides (Rambam) acknowledged that prophecy could reappear “if Israel were worthy” (Guide for the Perplexed, II:45).
Thus, the Jewish claim that prophecy is closed cannot nullify the Mosaic promise of a future prophet.

5. “Muhammad Came Too Late”

Another common argument states that Muhammad appeared too long after Moses (about 2,000 years later).
However, if the passage were time-restricted, Jesus himself — who came roughly 1,400 years after Moses — would also fall outside the valid window.
The prophecy never specifies a time limit; it only defines the lineage and characteristics of the coming prophet.
Deuteronomy 18:18’s emphasis is on identity (“like unto thee”) and origin (“from among their brethren”), not chronology.
Furthermore, Deuteronomy 33:2 prophetically speaks of God coming from Paran, the region historically associated with Ishmael’s descendants (Genesis 21:21), describing:

“The Lord came from Sinai, and rose up from Seir unto them; he shined forth from mount Paran, and he came with ten thousand saints.”

This aligns strikingly with Prophet Muhammad’s return to Makkah with ten thousand believers, fulfilling the final covenantal phase of divine revelation.

6. “The Ishmaelites Are Not Covenant Bearers”

The Bible affirms that Ishmael was also blessed and made a “great nation”:

“As for Ishmael, I have heard you: behold, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and multiply him exceedingly.” (Genesis 17:20)
Although the Mosaic covenant was given through Israel, the Abrahamic covenant preceded it and encompassed both lines — Isaac and Ishmael.
Therefore, a prophet from Ishmael’s descendants continues that same Abrahamic monotheistic mission, not a foreign religion.

Some Christians concede that God promised to make Ishmael “a great nation” (Genesis 17 : 20) but claim this was fulfilled only through numbers, not through divine favor or covenantal guidance.
This view misunderstands both the Hebrew text and the theological context in which “great nation” is used throughout the Torah.

A. The Hebrew Meaning of “Great Nation”

The Hebrew word for “nation” is gôy (גּוֹי) – Strong’s #1471 – and the adjective “great” is gādôl (גָּדוֹל) – Strong’s #1419.
While gādôl can denote size, it far more often describes importance, significance, and divine approval.
It designates a people who are weighty in God’s plan – a nation made great through its righteousness and adherence to God’s law, not merely its population.

This is precisely how gôy gādôl is used in Deuteronomy 4 : 7 – 8, where Israel is called a “great nation” because it possesses divine statutes and ordinances:

“For what nation (gôy gādôl) is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto them… and what nation is there so great, that hath statutes and judgments so righteous as all this law?”

Hence, the greatness of a nation in God’s eyes rests upon obedience and law, not demographic success.
When God blesses Ishmael with the same phrase (Genesis 17 : 20 – “twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation”), He is not promising only numerical growth but a law-guided, faithful civilization descended from Abraham’s other son.

B. Parallel Example: Abraham’s Lineage

The same pattern appears in Genesis 18 : 18 – 19, where God defines why Abraham’s descendants will become “a great and powerful nation”:

“Abraham will surely become a great and powerful nation, and all nations on earth will be blessed through him. For I have chosen him, so that he will direct his children and his household after him to keep the way of the LORD by doing what is right and just.”

Thus, great nation means:

Fruitful – expanding in descendants.
Numerous – spreading widely among peoples.
Faithful – maintaining divine law and justice.

C. The Ishmaelite Fulfillment

Ishmael’s blessing, therefore, foretold not only vast progeny but the eventual emergence of a community that upholds God’s statutes, just as Israel once did.
The Sharīʿah given through Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, a descendant of Ishmael, fulfilled this dimension precisely:
a divinely revealed legal system producing a moral, law-governed Ummah whose faithfulness, unity, and justice became a continuation of the Abrahamic covenant.

D. The Covenantal Continuity

God’s covenant with Abraham in Genesis 17 precedes the Mosaic covenant and includes both sons, Isaac and Ishmael.
Though the Mosaic Law later centered on Israel, the Abrahamic promise was trans-tribal: “In your seed all nations of the earth shall be blessed.”
By bringing revelation, law, and guidance to the descendants of Ishmael, Muhammad ﷺ completed the divine plan of making Ishmael’s line a gôy gādôl – a great and righteous nation before God.

For reference see the Chicago-Style References for sixth section

E. Historical Fulfillment of the Ishmaelite Line

Although Ishmael’s twelve sons were called “princes” (Genesis 25 : 13–16), they never formed a lasting unified nation.
The ancient records—biblical and extra-biblical alike—show that his descendants, such as Kedar, became powerful tribal confederations yet remained fragmented and at war with one another:

Genesis 17 : 18–20 – God promises to bless Ishmael and make him a “great nation.”
Genesis 25 : 13–16 – Lists Ishmael’s sons, including Kedar, progenitor of northern Arabian tribes.
Ezekiel 27 : 21 and Psalm 120 : 5 – Identify Kedar with Arabia, the land of desert tents and trade caravans.
Isaiah 21 : 16–17 – Foretells the decline of Kedar’s military pride: “Within a year… all the glory of Kedar shall fail.”
Isaiah 42 : 10–11 – Anticipates a future time when “the villages that Kedar inhabits” will lift their voices in praise—a prophecy Muslims see realized in the worship rising daily from Makkah and Madinah.
Assyrian inscriptions (Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal, 7th c. BCE) mention the Qidri/Qedarites, fierce Arab tribes of northern Arabia.

These sources reveal that Ishmael’s descendants were mighty princes, yet never a “great nation” in the covenantal sense—until the arrival of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, descendant of Kedar through the Quraysh.
Before him, Arabia was divided by endless tribal warfare; after him, it was unified under God’s Law (Sharīʿah), transforming from scattered clans into a single monotheistic civilization.
This new Ummah—obedient to divine statutes—overthrew the idols of Arabia and, within decades, brought down the empires of Rome and Persia, spreading faith and justice from Spain to Central Asia.
That is what Scripture means by a “great nation” (gôy gādôl): not a multitude of quarrelling tribes, but a unified, law-governed people fulfilling God’s moral design.

Line of Fulfillment:
Ishmael → Kedar → Arabian confederate tribes → Quraysh → Muhammad ﷺ

📚 references to the E-list

Genesis 17 : 18–20; 25 : 13–16; Isaiah 21 : 16–17; 42 : 10–11; Ezekiel 27 : 21; Psalm 120 : 5. Masoretic Text, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1997.
Lipiński, Edward. The Arabs: A Short History from the Earliest Times to the Present. Leuven: Peeters, 2002. — Discusses Kedar and early Arab confederations as descendants of Ishmael.
Kitchen, Kenneth A. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994. — Lists Assyrian inscriptions mentioning the “Qidri” (Kedarites).
Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001. — Correlates the Qedarite kingdoms with Ishmael’s lineage and the rise of Quraysh.

7. “If Muhammad Were the Prophet, Why Didn’t Jews Recognize Him?”

The Qur’an itself addresses this objection:

“Those to whom We gave the Scripture recognize him as they recognize their own sons.” (Q 2:146)

Many Jewish tribes in Arabia were aware of a coming prophet described in their texts; some, like the Banu Qurayzah and Banu Nadir, initially acknowledged him before political opposition arose.
The Prophet’s appearance from the Ishmaelites, long dismissed by Jewish elites, conflicted with nationalist expectations — hence their rejection mirrored the Israelites’ earlier denial of prophets outside their tribal lineage.

8. “Muhammad Is Not Mentioned by Name in the Bible”

The Bible frequently uses titles and descriptions, not names, for future figures.
Even Jesus was not named in the Old Testament; instead, prophecies describe “the Servant,” “the Branch,” or “the Son of Man.”
The Qur’an clarifies that earlier scriptures contained signs and descriptions of the final Prophet (Q 7:157).
The Hebrew root ḥmd (חמד), meaning “praised” or “desirable,” occurs in Song of Solomon 5:16 — “He is altogether lovely (maḥmadīm)” — linguistically identical to Muḥammad in Semitic form, further reinforcing continuity of reference.

9. Summary of Rebuttals

Claim	Response Summary
The prophet must be Israelite	“Brethren” includes Ishmaelites and Edomites; Hebrew text proves it.
Only Israelite prophets qualify	Deut. 18 uses mi-qerev aḥêhem (“from among their brethren”), not “from among you.”
Jesus fulfills the prophecy	Jesus lacked Mosaic traits of lawgiving, nation-building, and governance.
Prophecy ended with Malachi	DSS and rabbinic writings expected a future prophet like Moses.
Muhammad came too late	Jesus came 1,400 years after Moses; time gap irrelevant to prophecy’s scope.
Ishmaelites excluded from covenant	Genesis 17:20 confirms Ishmael’s blessing and divine promise.
Jews did not accept him	Rejection stemmed from lineage bias, not textual absence.
Muhammad not named	Prophecies describe function, not personal name; ḥmd root parallels confirm link.

10. Conclusion of the Section

Every linguistic, textual, and historical objection collapses under direct examination of the Hebrew, Greek, and contextual evidence.
The phrase “from among their brethren” refers unmistakably to the Ishmaelite branch of Abraham’s family.
Muhammad ﷺ alone fulfills the Mosaic profile:
a prophet who spoke by direct revelation, established divine law, founded a nation, and completed the Abrahamic vision.
Neither chronology nor lineage disqualifies him; in fact, both the Torah and Qur’an converge in affirming him as the promised Prophet like Moses.

Additional References for Section IX-B: “Common Objections and Clarifications”

The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). Deuteronomy 18:18; 23:7; 33:2; Genesis 16:11–12; 25:18. Masoretic Text, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1997.
— For the phrase מִקֶּרֶב אֲחֵיהֶם (mi-qerev aḥêhem), demonstrating that “brethren” denotes Abrahamic kin, not solely Israelites.
The Septuagint (LXX). Deuteronomy 18:18. In Septuaginta: Id est Vet Testamentum Graece iuxta LXX Interpretes, ed. Alfred Rahlfs and Robert Hanhart. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006.
— Uses the phrase ἐκ τῶν ἀδελφῶν αὐτῶν (“from among their brothers”), confirming the inclusive Abrahamic reading.
Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1906. s.v. “אָח (aḥ)” — defines aḥ as “brother, kinsman, relative; used also of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Ishmael toward Israel.”
Koehler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000.
— Confirms aḥîm can denote “tribal or national kin related by descent from a common ancestor.”
New International Version (NIV). Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011. — Modern translation rendering Deut 18:18 as “from among their fellow Israelites”; noted for interpretive, not textual, insertion.
King James Version (KJV). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1769 rev. ed. — Retains the accurate “from among their brethren.”
Vermes, Geza. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English. London: Penguin Classics, 2012. — For 1QSa II 11–22 (“the Prophet and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel”), demonstrating continued expectation of a Mosaic-type prophet after Moses.
Wise, Michael O., Martin G. Abegg, and Edward Cook. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
Maimonides (Rambam). The Guide for the Perplexed. Trans. Shlomo Pines. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Bk. II, ch. 45 — notes that prophecy could reappear if Israel became worthy.
Collins, John J. The Scepter and the Star: Messianism in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010. — Explains the DSS expectation of distinct Prophet, Priestly, and Kingly messiahs.
Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Trans. William Whiston. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930. — Background for Second Temple prophetic expectations.
The Qur’an. Trans. M. A. S. Abdel Haleem. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
— 53:3–4 (“He does not speak of his own desire; it is but revelation revealed.”) and 7:157; 28:48; 33:40 for the Mosaic parallel and final prophethood.
Greenberg, Moshe. The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960. — Cited for statement that “Muhammad exhibits the very same multiplicity of roles: oracle, political-military leader, cult founder, and lawgiver.”
Dow, James L. Collins Dictionary of the Bible. London: Collins, 1971. — Entry under “Moses”: “The only man in history who can be compared even remotely to him is Mohammed.”
Tigay, Jeffrey H. Deuteronomy: The JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1996. — Discusses the prophet-like-Moses passage and the linguistic implications of aḥîm (“brethren”).
Albright, William F., and George E. Wright. The History of Israel. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1965. — For the geographical identification of Mount Paran with the Ishmaelite territory of northwest Arabia.
Smith, Sidney. The Early History of Palestine and Arabia. London: Oxford University Press, 1929. — Documents the Arabian location of Paran and the lineage of Ishmael.
Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah. New York: Doubleday, 1993. — For Second Temple expectations of Elijah, Messiah, and Prophet as distinct figures.
Hirsch, Samson Raphael. The Pentateuch: Deuteronomy. Trans. Isaac Levy. London: Soncino, 1962. — Rabbinic interpretation of Deut 18:18 showing broader “brethren” understanding before later national restriction.
Arberry, A. J. The Qur’an Interpreted. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964. — Provides cross-references for Q 73:15 and Q 28:48 with the Mosaic typology.

Added Chicago-Style References for The sixth section

Strong, James. The New Strong’s Expanded Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2001.
— Entries #1471 (gôy, “nation”); #1419 (gādôl, “great, weighty, important”).
Brown, Francis, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (BDB). Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1906. p. 152 & 177. Defines gādôl as “distinguished, significant, eminent,” and gôy gādôl as “a people of divine importance.”
Deuteronomy 4 : 7 – 8 and Genesis 18 : 18 – 19, Masoretic Text. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1997.
— Used to show “great nation” refers to law-abiding covenantal obedience.
Sarna, Nahum M. Genesis: The JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. Notes that “great nation” in Genesis 17 : 20 implies divine favor and ethical vocation, not mere multitude.
Hamilton, Victor P. The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1 – 17. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990. Explains that gôy gādôl is a covenantal term for a people empowered to uphold righteousness in God’s name.